Polymer Chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with large molecules made up of repeating units referred to as monomers. The scope of Polymer Chemistry extends from oligomers with only a few repeating units to high polymers with thousands or millions of repeating units. Polymer Chemistry includes branches that mimic the divisions of the field of chemistry as a whole, with synthetic (preparation methods) and physical (property determination), biological (proteins, polysaccharides, and polynucleic acids), and analytical (qualitative and quantitative analysis) chemistry. Pre-existing polymers can also be modified by chemical means - including grafting or functionalization reactions. Polymerization and modification reactions can be employed to produce designer polymers as new materials with practically any desired properties

Polymeric nanoparticles are predominantly prepared by wet synthetic routes. Several industrial processes will be described. Emphasis will be placed on the type of polymers and morphology structures that can be synthesized using each process. Controlled radical polymerization will be explored for their ability to provide structural control of polymer chains.

The extraordinarily large surface area on the nanoparticles presents diverse opportunities to place functional groups on the surface. Particles can be created that can expand/contract with changes in pH, or interact with anti-bodies in special ways to provide rapid ex-vivo medical diagnostic tests. Important extensions have been made in combining inorganic materials with polymers and in combining different classes of polymers together in nanoparticle form.

Advanced analytical techniques allow us to measure structure at ever-decreasing length scales. Computer simulations of the events occurring during particle formation have also benefited us in developing control strategies to produce structured particles.

Polymers are large molecules composed of repeated chemical units. The smallest repeating unit is called a mer. The term polymer is derived from the Greek words poly and mers meaning "many parts." Linear polymers are like ropes. For a polymer chain of 10,000 units (a typical length), a standard half-inch-thick rope would be about 128 meters (140 yards) long to represent the length-to-thickness ratio. Polymers are synthesized naturally and artificially to perform a wide variety of specialized tasks.

The number of repeat units in a chain is called the degree of polymerization (DP) or chain length. Thus, a poly(propylene) chain 5,000 units long would have a DP of 5,000 and an "n" value of 5,000. Because most polymer mixtures contain chains of varying lengths, the chain length is often referred to in terms of average chain length or average DP.

Copolymers are polymers derived from two different monomers.

Some linear chains have extensions (beyond the substitution) coming off the polymer backbone. These extensions are called branches and influence a polymer's properties. Branches may be long or short, frequent or infrequent. For example, so-called low density polyethylene (LDPE) has between forty and one hundred short branches for every 1,000 ethylene units, whereas high density polyethylene (HDPE) has only one to six short branches for every 1,000 ethylene units. Branching discourages the chains from fitting close together so that the structure will be amorphous with relatively large amounts of empty space. Regular structures with little or no branching allow the polymer chains to fit close together, forming a crystalline structure. Crystalline structures are generally stronger, more brittle, of higher density, more resistant to chemical penetration and degradation, less soluble, and have higher melting points. For example, HDPE has a density of 0.97 gram per milliliter and a melting point of about 130°C (266°F), whereas LDPE has a density of about 0.92 gram per milliliter and a melting point of about 100°C

Noncovalent interactions provide a flexible means of engineering new chemical entities with tailored properties. Specific interactions between functionalized small molecules and polymer chains bearing complementary binding sites can be used to engineer supramolecular complexes that display mesomorphic structure. This has been exploited to develop a range of functional materials including photonic band gap polymers, ionic conductors and donor-acceptor semiconducting polymers. Additionally, the deliberate association of polymers with surfactants in engineered, synthetic materials is increasingly motivated by the possibility of combining the stimuli-responsive self-assembly and solubilizing properties of surfactants with the intrinsic solution properties of polymers, such as rheology medication and facile coating of interfaces. In solution, the hydrophobic nature of the surfactant compared to a hydrophilic polymer backbone leads to coil-globule transitions on decreasing solvent quality, surfactants cluster and force small length scale intrachain associations, causing a sharp reduction in the end-end chain distance, i.e collapse. These transitions qualitatively mimic the behaviour of proteins in which there is an aggregation of hydrophobic side chains that occurs as a precursor to collapse and eventual folding. At higher concentrations, interchange associations drive supramolecular ordering, leading to larger characteristic length scales and in some cases to the formation of gels or networks. Overall, there is a compelling need to understand the physical chemistry, structure and dynamics of supramolecular polymers, both in solution and in the melt. Our work focuses on detailed examination of composition and temperature dependent molecular and supramolecular structures in solutions and melts. We quantitatively characterize the thermodynamics and kinetics of polymer-small molecule binding, elucidating the dependence on surfactant chemistry and environmental variables. We strive to formulate coherent frameworks describing structure-property relationships in the systems considered.

Functional polymers are macromolecules to which chemically bound functional groups are attached which can be utilised as reagents, catalysts, protecting groups, etc. The polymer support can be either a linear species which is soluble or a cross-linked species which is insoluble. For a polymer to be used as a support, it should have significant mechanical stability under the reaction conditions. Such properties of the support have greater importance for the functionalization reaction and for the applications of the functional polymers.

The polymer properties can be modified either by chemical reactions on pendant groups or by changing the physical nature of the polymers, such as their physical form, porosity and solvation behaviour. Such properties have a great importance for the functionalization reactions for the eventual applications of the reactive polymers.

Catalysis  by  polymers  is  the  new  intensively  developing  field  of  science.  Polymer  catalysis  has  become  an  independent  and  thriving  branch  of  chemistry. Extensive development of this field is attributed to success achieved in synthesis and investigation of so-called functional polymers as well as to success attained in homogeneous, metal complex catalysis. The fruitful cooperation  of  these  two  directions,  namely the  fixation  of  homogeneous  catalysts  or  transition metal compounds on organic polymers, has led to the novel idea of heterogenization of homogeneous metal complex catalysts. Such catalysts obtained by the heterogenization of various polymeric supports by homogeneous complexes of transition metals, retain the advantages of both homogeneous (high selectivity) and heterogeneous (convenient manufacture) catalysts. Two aspects of catalysis involving polymers should be discussed:  (1) the catalytic effect of functional groups of polymers and (2) the use of polymers as supports for homogeneous metal complexes. Such an approach is useful because it enables one to establish a relationship between enzyme-like, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Polymeric catalysis may be arbitrary divided on several parts:

1. Catalysis by linear polymers in solutions

2. Ion-Exchange resins as catalysts.

3. Catalysis by polymer-metal complexes.

4. Polymer-protected Nano sized catalysts.

Bio catalytic pathways to Polymeric Materials are an emerging research area with not only enormous scientific and technological promise, but also a tremendous impact on environmental issues. Whole cell biocatalysts have been exploited for thousands of years. Historically biotechnology was manifested in skills such as the manufacture of wines, beer, cheese etc., where the techniques were well worked out and reproducible, while the biochemical mechanism was not understood. While the chemical, economic and social advantages of bio catalysis over traditional chemical approaches were recognized a long time ago, their application to industrial production processes have been largely neglected until recent break-through in modern biotechnology (such as robust protein expression systems, directed evolution etc). Subsequently, in recent years, biotechnology has established itself as an indispensable tool in the synthesis of small molecules in the pharmaceutical sector including antibiotics, recombinant proteins and vaccines and monoclonal antibodies. 

Advanced polymeric Biomaterials continue to serve as a cornerstone of new medical technologies and therapies. The vast majority of these materials, both natural and synthetic, interact with biological matter without direct electronic communication. However, biological systems have evolved to synthesize and employ naturally-derived materials for the generation and modulation of electrical potentials, voltage gradients, and ion flows. Bioelectric phenomena can be interpreted as potent signalling cues for intra- and inter-cellular communication. These cues can serve as a gateway to link synthetic devices with biological systems. This progress report will provide an update on advances in the application of electronically active Biomaterials for use in organic electronics and bio-interfaces. Specific focus will be granted to the use of natural and synthetic biological materials as integral components in technologies such as thin film electronics, in vitro cell culture models, and implantable medical devices. Future perspectives and emerging challenges will also be highlighted.

Proteins are linear polymers built of monomer units called amino acids. The construction of a vast array of macromolecules or polymer structure from a limited number of monomer building blocks is a recurring theme in biochemistry. The function of a protein is directly dependent on its three dimensional structure remarkably, proteins spontaneously fold up into three-dimensional structures that are determined by the sequence of amino acids in the protein polymer. Thus, proteins are the embodiment of the transition from the one-dimensional world of sequences to the three-dimensional world of molecules capable of diverse activities.

Polymers become more miscible as the temperature is lowered, Liquid-liquid phase separation is assumed. If one of the components crystallizes, quite different phases emerge. Occasionally, upper critical solution temperatures (UCM) are observed for blends at some lower temperature range. Typical data may be obtained by raising the temperature rapidly from some temperature in the totally miscible range to some higher temperature, and observing changes via optical clarity and microscopy. Particular molecular weights for the two polymers in question. Different molecular weights result in different positions of the phase, and different maximum temperatures of mutual miscibility. Here, the temperature and the composition of a particular polymer pair is varied.

The early developments in Polymer Technology occurred without any real knowledge of the molecular theory of polymers. The idea that the Structure of Molecules in Nature might give an understanding of plastics was put forward by Emil Fischer, who in 1901 discovered that natural polymers were built up of linked chains of molecules. It was not until 1922 that the chemist Herman Staudinger proposed that not only were these chains far longer than first thought, but they were composed of giant molecules containing more than a thousand atoms. He christened them ‘macromolecules’, but his theory was not proved until 1935 when the first plastic was created with a predictable form. This was the first synthetic fibre, nylon.

The marketing mix is an important part of the marketing of polymers and consists of the marketing 'tools' you are going to use. But marketing strategy is more than the marketing of mixed polymers and plastics. The marketing strategy sets your marketing goals, defines your target markets and describes how you will go about positioning the business to achieve advantage over your competitors. The marketing mix, which follows from your marketing strategy, is how you achieve that 'unique selling proposition' and deliver benefits to your customers.
When you have developed your marketing strategy, it is usually written down in a marketing plan. The plan usually goes further than the strategy, including detail such as budgets. You need to have a marketing strategy before you can write a marketing plan. Your marketing strategy may serve you well for a number of years but the details, such as budgets for marketing activities, of the marketing plan may need to be updated every year.

The Organic Evolution high polymers ranging from natural cellulose to vinyls, acrylates, polyamides and polyesters, contain essential elements for nutrition of plants and animals. The enzyme systems present in the organisms can attack these organic materials by virtue of specificity or adaptation, depending upon the chemical constitution and Polymer Structure. It was previously noted that certain of these polymers were liable to microbial attack, and this posed a problem in their general use as electrical insulation and protective coatings. The evaluation of the relative resistance of polymers to fungi and bacteria has been a subject of investigation for a long time but the chemical and mechanistic approach has hardly been undertaken. 

Polymer therapeutics encompass polymer–protein conjugates, drug–polymer conjugates, and supramolecular drug-delivery systems. Numerous polymer–protein conjugates with improved stability and pharmacokinetic properties have been developed, for example, by anchoring enzymes or biologically relevant proteins to polyethylene glycol components (PEGylation). Several polymer–protein conjugates have received market approval, for example the PEGylated form of adenosine deaminase. Coupling low-molecular-weight anticancer drugs to high-molecular-weight polymers through a cleavable linker is an effective method for improving the therapeutic index of clinically established agents, and the first candidates have been evaluated in clinical trials, including, N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide conjugates of doxorubicin, camptothecin, paclitaxel, and platinum(II) complexes. 

Polymer Characterization includes determining molecular weight distribution, the molecular structure, the morphology of the polymer, Thermal Properties, mechanical properties, and any additives. Molecular Characterization also includes the development and refinement of analytical methods with statistical models which help to understand phase separation and phase transistion of polymers. The results achieved hereof can be eventually applied to optimize the experimental conditions during analyses. We have multiple approaches for Polymer Characterization.

The controlled combustion of polymers produces heat energy. The heat energy produced by the burning plastic municipal waste not only can be converted to electrical energy but also helps burn the wet trash that is present. Paper also produces heat when burned, but not as much as do plastics. On the other hand, glass, aluminium and other metals do not release any energy when burned. The disposal of polymer solid waste by means other than landfilling is necessary.